Kutschera U. Humanity and evolution. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Feb 11 [cited 2009 Sept 17];457: 763-764. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/nature/journal/v457/n7231/full/457763a.html
In Kutschera’s article Humanity and evolution, he begins by telling us that two great men, Charles Darwin and Abraham Lincoln, were born on February 12, 1809. Both of these men also believed in that slavery was wrong. A historical study being done by Adrian Desmond and James Moore, entitled Darwin's Sacred Cause, is attempting to prove that Darwin had made a connection between evolution in animals and evolution in people. They further want to prove that Darwin’s studies were always intended to have a moral and social impact.
As scientists delve deeper into the human genome, Kutschera cautions, we must be careful not to let our own opinions and preconceptions effect the results found. He is concerned that, as we discover genes responsible for the basic senses of right and wrong, we will begin to not hold people responsible for their own actions. Instead, those decisions might be blamed on a defective gene. He cautions that we must behave as scientists-examining issues with dispassion and not translating those conclusions into how we should take that information and use it in the present. If we do, then we will be going against the intentions of Darwin and Lincoln.
Wednesday, September 30, 2009
Summary 2
Campbell P, Waldrop M M. Natural Value. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Feb 11 [cited 2009 sept 17];457: 764. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/nature/journal/v457/n7231/full/457764a.html
The editorial, Natural Value, explores one potential way that we can save natural resources. The article contends that the environment, especially in some situations, is economically advantageous for us to manage and maintain. If we can accurately price the worth of a natural recourse, it would then have added perceived value. Then people would be more apt to preserve those recourses.
There are both positives and challenges inherent in this plan. Many of these resources would, in the long run, save a great deal of money. Maintaining places such as marshes protects areas inland from hurricanes and other water disasters. Jobs would be created for monitoring these natural resources and research into their uses. The big problem with implementing any government plans is that there aren’t enough solid ways to assess the economic value of certain areas. Also it would “make everything more expensive”. The article argues that overall, in the long run, money would be saved as in the example of Hurricane Katrina where wetlands would have buffered much of the damage. Maintaining these natural recourses is much cheaper than paying for the consequences of allowing our natural resources to be destroyed.
The editorial, Natural Value, explores one potential way that we can save natural resources. The article contends that the environment, especially in some situations, is economically advantageous for us to manage and maintain. If we can accurately price the worth of a natural recourse, it would then have added perceived value. Then people would be more apt to preserve those recourses.
There are both positives and challenges inherent in this plan. Many of these resources would, in the long run, save a great deal of money. Maintaining places such as marshes protects areas inland from hurricanes and other water disasters. Jobs would be created for monitoring these natural resources and research into their uses. The big problem with implementing any government plans is that there aren’t enough solid ways to assess the economic value of certain areas. Also it would “make everything more expensive”. The article argues that overall, in the long run, money would be saved as in the example of Hurricane Katrina where wetlands would have buffered much of the damage. Maintaining these natural recourses is much cheaper than paying for the consequences of allowing our natural resources to be destroyed.
Summary 3
Ball P. When does punishment work?. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Sept 28 [cited 2009 Sept 17]. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090928/full/news.2009.955.html
A paper written in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, evaluating the results of a study done by Yi Tao of the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institute of Zoology in Beijing, attempts to explain why certain people respond differently to situations in which punishment is a threat. Students were given a version of the game commonly called the prisoner’s dilemma. In the common version of this game, a person can either cooperate or defect; the ability to punish was added to test how it affects cooperation.
Most people in democratic societies responded with eventual cooperation. The United States and China did not. While the US results are somewhat less reliable, the Chinese results seem to be solid. In this computer game, Chinese are more likely to punish than cooperate…even if this hurts themselves in the end. Researchers believe that the way that the Chinese interact, especially during business activities, explains this. Chinese business is done in a slow, deliberate manner called guanxi. It is based on a relationship slowly cultivated based on “friendship, obligation, and guilt” that continues until both parties are satisfied. There is no one on one interaction in the prisoner’s dilemma game and so no trust forms. Without trust, in the Chinese culture, there is no reason to cooperate. This study seems to prove only that societal norms affect behavior at least as much as biology.
A paper written in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, evaluating the results of a study done by Yi Tao of the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institute of Zoology in Beijing, attempts to explain why certain people respond differently to situations in which punishment is a threat. Students were given a version of the game commonly called the prisoner’s dilemma. In the common version of this game, a person can either cooperate or defect; the ability to punish was added to test how it affects cooperation.
Most people in democratic societies responded with eventual cooperation. The United States and China did not. While the US results are somewhat less reliable, the Chinese results seem to be solid. In this computer game, Chinese are more likely to punish than cooperate…even if this hurts themselves in the end. Researchers believe that the way that the Chinese interact, especially during business activities, explains this. Chinese business is done in a slow, deliberate manner called guanxi. It is based on a relationship slowly cultivated based on “friendship, obligation, and guilt” that continues until both parties are satisfied. There is no one on one interaction in the prisoner’s dilemma game and so no trust forms. Without trust, in the Chinese culture, there is no reason to cooperate. This study seems to prove only that societal norms affect behavior at least as much as biology.
Summary 4
Dolgin E. Color blindness corrected by gene therapy. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Sept 16 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.921 . Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090916/full/news.2009.921.html
Jay Neitz of the University of Washington in Seattle and his colleagues conducted an experiment on red green color blindness. Color blindness occurs because there is a missing gene for either red or green on the cone cells on the retina. Squirrel monkeys have to have both of the versions of the opsin gene in order to see in full color. All male squirrel monkeys are color blind because the opsin genes are each carried on only one x chromosome. This allows most of the females to see in full color, but all of the males must be colorblind. The researchers attached the human red opsin gene to a viral vector and injected it behind the squirrel monkeys’ retinas. Within 20 weeks, the monkeys were able to see the color red.
This study suggests that color blindness in humans could be corrected. Previously, researchers weren’t certain if the brains of color blind individuals were unable to interpret or receive the signals from the cone cells. Now they know that correcting the missing gene at only the cone cell level can correct the color blindness. The main concern is that color blind humans often have excellent vision. Researchers are concerned that any alteration might affect the vision.
Jay Neitz of the University of Washington in Seattle and his colleagues conducted an experiment on red green color blindness. Color blindness occurs because there is a missing gene for either red or green on the cone cells on the retina. Squirrel monkeys have to have both of the versions of the opsin gene in order to see in full color. All male squirrel monkeys are color blind because the opsin genes are each carried on only one x chromosome. This allows most of the females to see in full color, but all of the males must be colorblind. The researchers attached the human red opsin gene to a viral vector and injected it behind the squirrel monkeys’ retinas. Within 20 weeks, the monkeys were able to see the color red.
This study suggests that color blindness in humans could be corrected. Previously, researchers weren’t certain if the brains of color blind individuals were unable to interpret or receive the signals from the cone cells. Now they know that correcting the missing gene at only the cone cell level can correct the color blindness. The main concern is that color blind humans often have excellent vision. Researchers are concerned that any alteration might affect the vision.
Summary 5
Ball P. Artificial babies are so last century. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Jul 30 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.747. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090731/full/news.2009.747.html
According to Philip Ball, many people are scared and upset by the research done by Karim Nayernia, a stem-cell biologist at the University of Newcastle, UK. Nayernia has found a way to alter normal embryonic stem cells into cells resembling sperm cells. These cells are not sperm cells. Hysteria over the role of science in the sexes is not a new one.
Some people are concerned that long dead people will be reproduced. Others are concerned that the role of men might become minimal if they aren’t needed to reproduce. These sorts of concerns have been seen before. In the 1920’s people were terrified that test tube babies, a concept thought up by British biologist J. B. S. Haldane in his book Daedalus; or Science and the Future, would make men pointless. The conservative philosopher, Anthony Ludovici, was concerned that ectogenesis (the process of incubating a baby outside of the female womb) would make men obsolete, and that women would only keep a very small number of men around as sperm donors. The rest of the men produced, Ludovici thought, would be sent to slaughter. Ball tells us to not fall prey to the panic that we now scoff at others in the past for exhibiting.
According to Philip Ball, many people are scared and upset by the research done by Karim Nayernia, a stem-cell biologist at the University of Newcastle, UK. Nayernia has found a way to alter normal embryonic stem cells into cells resembling sperm cells. These cells are not sperm cells. Hysteria over the role of science in the sexes is not a new one.
Some people are concerned that long dead people will be reproduced. Others are concerned that the role of men might become minimal if they aren’t needed to reproduce. These sorts of concerns have been seen before. In the 1920’s people were terrified that test tube babies, a concept thought up by British biologist J. B. S. Haldane in his book Daedalus; or Science and the Future, would make men pointless. The conservative philosopher, Anthony Ludovici, was concerned that ectogenesis (the process of incubating a baby outside of the female womb) would make men obsolete, and that women would only keep a very small number of men around as sperm donors. The rest of the men produced, Ludovici thought, would be sent to slaughter. Ball tells us to not fall prey to the panic that we now scoff at others in the past for exhibiting.
Summary 6
Kaplan M. Birds born to fear red. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Jul 31 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.760. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090731/full/news.2009.760.html
Sarah Pryke of Macquarie University in Sydney has conducted an experiment on Australian Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) attempting to conclude whether the color red is hard wired into animal brains or if the association with red is a learned trait. In this study Pryke used juvenile Gouldians who had not yet developed into red-heads or black-heads. She then randomly painted the finches’ heads red, black, or blue. The blue color being the control color as it is not found in natural Gouldians. The birds with the red heads were deferred to at feedings without a fight and exhibited lower corticosterone levels than the blue and black painted birds.
Scientists have seen numerous examples of red being seen as the color of aggression but they aren’t sure why. They speculate that the infusion of blood to the surface of the skin when aroused may be a signal to others of aggression. Also the color red may be physically difficult to maintain so those that do must be exemplary specimens. The fact that red is such a noticeable color may signal to others that the particular animal is especially tough so it can be noticed by predators and still survive.
Sarah Pryke of Macquarie University in Sydney has conducted an experiment on Australian Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) attempting to conclude whether the color red is hard wired into animal brains or if the association with red is a learned trait. In this study Pryke used juvenile Gouldians who had not yet developed into red-heads or black-heads. She then randomly painted the finches’ heads red, black, or blue. The blue color being the control color as it is not found in natural Gouldians. The birds with the red heads were deferred to at feedings without a fight and exhibited lower corticosterone levels than the blue and black painted birds.
Scientists have seen numerous examples of red being seen as the color of aggression but they aren’t sure why. They speculate that the infusion of blood to the surface of the skin when aroused may be a signal to others of aggression. Also the color red may be physically difficult to maintain so those that do must be exemplary specimens. The fact that red is such a noticeable color may signal to others that the particular animal is especially tough so it can be noticed by predators and still survive.
Summary 7
Cyranoski D. DNA swap could avoid inherited diseases. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Aug 26 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.860. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090826/full/news.2009.860.html
A technique has been developed and tested on rhesus macaques where the chromosomes of one female’s egg is transplanted into an egg of another female who’s nuclear DNA has been removed. The aim of this experiment is to eliminate the defective mitochondria of the chromosome donating female from the offspring. So far 3 successful transfers have taken place with the rhesus macaques.
This research is very promising for human use as it has been successful in another primate and so should work in humans as well. Many mitochondrial diseases could be eliminated in this way such as type 2 diabetes, mitochondrial myopathies, and Leigh syndrome. Researchers feel that work on humans could be ready as soon as 2 years from now. Some potential complications may hold back using the technique on humans. Human DNA is a bit more delicate than the rhesus macaque’s. Strict laws governing the use of embryos, acquiring eggs, and nuclear transfer may slow things down. Also, there is some concern that, in some situations, the mitochondria from one egg may not be compatible with the DNA from another. Nevertheless, genetic researchers in the mitochondrial disease field are very excited and hopeful that this new technique will benefit future generations.
A technique has been developed and tested on rhesus macaques where the chromosomes of one female’s egg is transplanted into an egg of another female who’s nuclear DNA has been removed. The aim of this experiment is to eliminate the defective mitochondria of the chromosome donating female from the offspring. So far 3 successful transfers have taken place with the rhesus macaques.
This research is very promising for human use as it has been successful in another primate and so should work in humans as well. Many mitochondrial diseases could be eliminated in this way such as type 2 diabetes, mitochondrial myopathies, and Leigh syndrome. Researchers feel that work on humans could be ready as soon as 2 years from now. Some potential complications may hold back using the technique on humans. Human DNA is a bit more delicate than the rhesus macaque’s. Strict laws governing the use of embryos, acquiring eggs, and nuclear transfer may slow things down. Also, there is some concern that, in some situations, the mitochondria from one egg may not be compatible with the DNA from another. Nevertheless, genetic researchers in the mitochondrial disease field are very excited and hopeful that this new technique will benefit future generations.
Summary 8
Marris E. Frog serenade foiled. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Aug 25 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.856. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090825/full/news.2009.856.html
Kirsten Parris, an ecologist at the University of Melbourne, has been studying frogs in the Australian city of Melbourne. She has found that the noise of traffic is hindering the local frog populations from finding mates. The trouble is that the low frequency of the traffic noise is similar to the low frequencies of the frog mating calls. The interference can decrease the distance the call travels by 8 times. Some frogs, such as the southern brown tree frog, have increased the pitch of their calls so as to travel farther. Without some sort of intervention, many species could become extinct.
Parris suggests that noise barriers be erected to decrease noise around habitats. She also believes that changing the slope of some ponds to be more sloping and less steep may help to decrease interfering noise. Parris says that many species can adapt and avoid extinction fairly well with just a little help with decreasing noise pollution. Other scientists feel that the loss of environment is of much greater concern. They suggest that frogs cannot easily alter their pitch without changing the mass of the frogs themselves.
Kirsten Parris, an ecologist at the University of Melbourne, has been studying frogs in the Australian city of Melbourne. She has found that the noise of traffic is hindering the local frog populations from finding mates. The trouble is that the low frequency of the traffic noise is similar to the low frequencies of the frog mating calls. The interference can decrease the distance the call travels by 8 times. Some frogs, such as the southern brown tree frog, have increased the pitch of their calls so as to travel farther. Without some sort of intervention, many species could become extinct.
Parris suggests that noise barriers be erected to decrease noise around habitats. She also believes that changing the slope of some ponds to be more sloping and less steep may help to decrease interfering noise. Parris says that many species can adapt and avoid extinction fairly well with just a little help with decreasing noise pollution. Other scientists feel that the loss of environment is of much greater concern. They suggest that frogs cannot easily alter their pitch without changing the mass of the frogs themselves.
Summary 9
Dalton R. Fossil protection law comes under fire. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Aug 25 [cited 2009 Sept 17];460: 1067 . Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090825/full/4601067b.html
Recently, in China, fossil excavation laws have given the rights to private enterprise rather that to scientists and the government. This had fueled large amounts of digging by poor Chinese farmers and land owners. Chinese paleontologists are concerned about the loss of many fossils being dug up with poor technique and sold to international traders. The Chinese government, on the recommendation of Chinese paleontologists, is working to change the laws so as to give the government more control over excavation finds.
Many scientists worldwide have concerns that the change in the federal law will only enhance the illegal black market trade in fossils. Some of the remedies considered include having the land and resource ministry control over vertebrate fossil collections. Also they would like to have a group of paleontologists that oversee the collections nationwide. Some concerns include that local jurisdictions could prevent scientists excavating by demanding large sums of money. While everyone agrees that the local jurisdiction should have some say, there is concern that the officials there will not have enough knowledge with which to make good judgments. Support for the efforts, whatever the details, is strong within the paleontological world, and there is hope that the changes will protect the natural history of China.
Recently, in China, fossil excavation laws have given the rights to private enterprise rather that to scientists and the government. This had fueled large amounts of digging by poor Chinese farmers and land owners. Chinese paleontologists are concerned about the loss of many fossils being dug up with poor technique and sold to international traders. The Chinese government, on the recommendation of Chinese paleontologists, is working to change the laws so as to give the government more control over excavation finds.
Many scientists worldwide have concerns that the change in the federal law will only enhance the illegal black market trade in fossils. Some of the remedies considered include having the land and resource ministry control over vertebrate fossil collections. Also they would like to have a group of paleontologists that oversee the collections nationwide. Some concerns include that local jurisdictions could prevent scientists excavating by demanding large sums of money. While everyone agrees that the local jurisdiction should have some say, there is concern that the officials there will not have enough knowledge with which to make good judgments. Support for the efforts, whatever the details, is strong within the paleontological world, and there is hope that the changes will protect the natural history of China.
Summary 10
Gilbert N. Forest definition comes under fire. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Aug 19 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.842 . Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090819/full/news.2009.842.html
A study published in the journal Conservation Letters, by Harvard ecologist, Sasaki, says that the health of the world’s forests could be in trouble if the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change doesn’t change the definition of the word “forest”. As it stands now the term forest can be designated by individual countries within a fairly loose framework. A forest must be 0.05 to 1 hectare minimum, at least 10 to 30 percent of the area is covered in a tree canopy, and the minimum size of trees must be 2 to 5 meters. This means that in some countries, a forest is 0.05 hectares, 10 percent is covered by a canopy, and the trees are 2 meters tall. The big problem here is that this allows the larger trees to be removed by lumber companies and have the area still be considered a forest. The larger trees are the ones that handle 70 percent of carbon storage so those are the ones that need to be maintained.
Sasaki suggests that the law be changed so that the minimum canopy cover should be 40 percent. He also feels that the minimum tree height needs to be 5 meters so that deforestation is discouraged. In the current plan, plantations are not differentiated from natural forests; this too is a problem that needs to be resolved. Some scientists say that while Sasaki’s ideas are common sense, there is not enough research to prove his theories. Lawmakers will decide either way at Copenhagen this year.
A study published in the journal Conservation Letters, by Harvard ecologist, Sasaki, says that the health of the world’s forests could be in trouble if the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change doesn’t change the definition of the word “forest”. As it stands now the term forest can be designated by individual countries within a fairly loose framework. A forest must be 0.05 to 1 hectare minimum, at least 10 to 30 percent of the area is covered in a tree canopy, and the minimum size of trees must be 2 to 5 meters. This means that in some countries, a forest is 0.05 hectares, 10 percent is covered by a canopy, and the trees are 2 meters tall. The big problem here is that this allows the larger trees to be removed by lumber companies and have the area still be considered a forest. The larger trees are the ones that handle 70 percent of carbon storage so those are the ones that need to be maintained.
Sasaki suggests that the law be changed so that the minimum canopy cover should be 40 percent. He also feels that the minimum tree height needs to be 5 meters so that deforestation is discouraged. In the current plan, plantations are not differentiated from natural forests; this too is a problem that needs to be resolved. Some scientists say that while Sasaki’s ideas are common sense, there is not enough research to prove his theories. Lawmakers will decide either way at Copenhagen this year.
Summary 11
Laursen L. Experimental design could reduce need for animal tests. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Mar 30 [cited 2009 Sept 29]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.209. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090330/full/news.2009.209.html
Hanno Wurbel at the Justus-Liebig-University in Giessen, Germany and his team of scientists have been looking into mouse behavior, and it’s effect on test results. They are trying to decrease the numbers of false positives in animal research testing. They believe that if scientists take certain genetic variations and environmental variations into account from the beginning and calculate that into the results, each study done will have more meaningful results. Wurbel believes that we have been trying to make mice into exact replicas of each other, not understanding that these are animals and will have specific responses to external stimuli regardless of how genetically similar they are. In all other types of studies, scientists have accepted natural variations as a necessary and normal part of experiments.
The next step will be to set up tests in multiple labs and attempt to fold in the variations found to be similar from lab to lab into the results. Some scientists argue that all of this is a waste of time. They say that any research done must be repeated many times over in order to be reliable anyway.
Hanno Wurbel at the Justus-Liebig-University in Giessen, Germany and his team of scientists have been looking into mouse behavior, and it’s effect on test results. They are trying to decrease the numbers of false positives in animal research testing. They believe that if scientists take certain genetic variations and environmental variations into account from the beginning and calculate that into the results, each study done will have more meaningful results. Wurbel believes that we have been trying to make mice into exact replicas of each other, not understanding that these are animals and will have specific responses to external stimuli regardless of how genetically similar they are. In all other types of studies, scientists have accepted natural variations as a necessary and normal part of experiments.
The next step will be to set up tests in multiple labs and attempt to fold in the variations found to be similar from lab to lab into the results. Some scientists argue that all of this is a waste of time. They say that any research done must be repeated many times over in order to be reliable anyway.
Summary 12
Check Hayden E. Fungus farmers show way to new drugs. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Mar 29 [cited 2009 Sept 29]. doi:10.1038/458561a. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090329/full/458561a.html
Leaf-cutting ants have a symbiotic relationship with fungus. They grow their own fungus gardens which give the fungus a good place to live and provide food for the ants. Research has shown that microbes that live in these fungus gardens may help to develop or enhance antibiotics and biofuels.
Cameron Currie, a microbial ecologist from the University of Toronto discovered the microbe actinomycete bacteria on the ants’ bodies. The bacteria secretes an antibiotic that helps to protect the cultivated fungus from a competing parasitic fungus. This particular bacterium suppresses the growth of yeast infections that affect people. Another area of study related to these ants is the study of how the fungus breaks down the plant material the ants supply. In lab situations, fungus cannot break down cellulose. If researchers can figure that mystery out, more efficient biofuels may be produced. Through the study, they discovered that there are many bacteria that can break down cellulose, and they found an enzyme made by the fungus that can also break down cellulose. All of this still leaves the question of why can’t we reproduce this in a lab setting? Scientists believe that it is likely a set of several organisms living in a symbiotic natural setting that allow this breakdown of cellulose.
Leaf-cutting ants have a symbiotic relationship with fungus. They grow their own fungus gardens which give the fungus a good place to live and provide food for the ants. Research has shown that microbes that live in these fungus gardens may help to develop or enhance antibiotics and biofuels.
Cameron Currie, a microbial ecologist from the University of Toronto discovered the microbe actinomycete bacteria on the ants’ bodies. The bacteria secretes an antibiotic that helps to protect the cultivated fungus from a competing parasitic fungus. This particular bacterium suppresses the growth of yeast infections that affect people. Another area of study related to these ants is the study of how the fungus breaks down the plant material the ants supply. In lab situations, fungus cannot break down cellulose. If researchers can figure that mystery out, more efficient biofuels may be produced. Through the study, they discovered that there are many bacteria that can break down cellulose, and they found an enzyme made by the fungus that can also break down cellulose. All of this still leaves the question of why can’t we reproduce this in a lab setting? Scientists believe that it is likely a set of several organisms living in a symbiotic natural setting that allow this breakdown of cellulose.
Summary 13
Barnett A. Settling of dust warms tropical Atlantic. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Mar 26 [cited 2009 Sept 29]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.194 Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090326/full/news.2009.194.html
Scientists have discovered a new possibility as to why we are seeing increased ocean surface temperatures and more hurricanes. Previously, we believed that this was either a natural earth cycle or that it is due to global warming. Now there is some evidence that the aerosols emitted by volcanic eruptions and African winds normally keep the global temperatures down and the tropical North Atlantic in particular.
As recently as the 1980’s there were increased levels of volcanic dust particles. As these particles have been settling through the 1990’s we have been seeing increases in ocean temperatures. This is going to add additional controversy to an already volatile debate. Scientists are looking into the possible effects of volcanic eruptions on temperatures in other ocean areas. They are also very interested in Africa’s dust which is the world’s largest source of dust. How does it affect global temperatures, and how will climate change affect the amount of dust being produced? At this point scientists are watching how these factors interact and change each other. Dust may play either a positive or negative role in moderating our global climate.
Scientists have discovered a new possibility as to why we are seeing increased ocean surface temperatures and more hurricanes. Previously, we believed that this was either a natural earth cycle or that it is due to global warming. Now there is some evidence that the aerosols emitted by volcanic eruptions and African winds normally keep the global temperatures down and the tropical North Atlantic in particular.
As recently as the 1980’s there were increased levels of volcanic dust particles. As these particles have been settling through the 1990’s we have been seeing increases in ocean temperatures. This is going to add additional controversy to an already volatile debate. Scientists are looking into the possible effects of volcanic eruptions on temperatures in other ocean areas. They are also very interested in Africa’s dust which is the world’s largest source of dust. How does it affect global temperatures, and how will climate change affect the amount of dust being produced? At this point scientists are watching how these factors interact and change each other. Dust may play either a positive or negative role in moderating our global climate.
Summary 14
Lovett R A. Past quakes cause future shocks. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Sept 30 [cited 2009 Sept 30]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.964. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090930/full/news.2009.964.html
After examining closely 22 years of data collected by seismologists, US seismologists have concluded that even distant earthquakes can lower the earthquake threshold and cause distant earthquakes. In late 2004 there was the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake. Following that larger earthquake, the San Andreas Fault had many smaller quakes. Scientists also saw an increase in what is believed to be underwater movements after larger earthquakes likely due to cracks and weak spots forming from the tension placed on the earth.
Scientists have also started studying at a station called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth. There they have drilled a 3 km deep hole into the fault and placed detectors into the fault. This detector placed so deep can detect tiny earthquakes that would remain unknown on the surface. Hopefully, this will give more information that can let us know when to expect an earthquake to occur. Scientists also hope to find an answer to the enigma of why the New Madrid fault, which has had 2 major earthquakes in the past 2000 years, stays so quiet for so long, then has huge movements.
After examining closely 22 years of data collected by seismologists, US seismologists have concluded that even distant earthquakes can lower the earthquake threshold and cause distant earthquakes. In late 2004 there was the Sumatra-Andaman earthquake. Following that larger earthquake, the San Andreas Fault had many smaller quakes. Scientists also saw an increase in what is believed to be underwater movements after larger earthquakes likely due to cracks and weak spots forming from the tension placed on the earth.
Scientists have also started studying at a station called the San Andreas Fault Observatory at Depth. There they have drilled a 3 km deep hole into the fault and placed detectors into the fault. This detector placed so deep can detect tiny earthquakes that would remain unknown on the surface. Hopefully, this will give more information that can let us know when to expect an earthquake to occur. Scientists also hope to find an answer to the enigma of why the New Madrid fault, which has had 2 major earthquakes in the past 2000 years, stays so quiet for so long, then has huge movements.
Summary 15
Monastersky R. The once-quiet scientist. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Sept 21 [cited 2009 Sept 30]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.929. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090921/full/news.2009.929.html
Dario Ringach was a research scientist who worked with primates until a few years ago. Rinach was a neuroscientist at the University of California until he began receiving death threats. After a colleague was sent a bomb, he decided to protect his family by giving up his career. Now he is speaking out about what he feels must be done to remedy this problem.
Ringach believes that there are so many people willing to speak out against animal research, but there are so few who are willing to attempt to explain why it is necessary. He says that groups like PETA and celebrities sensationalize the suffering of research animals. If scientists weren't so afraid to educate the public about what happens in research situations, the public would be able to see that it’s not so bad. They want biomedical research to be done but don’t understand that animal testing is a necessary part of that process. Ringach wants research facilities to open their doors so it can be seen that the animals are kept as comfortable and happy as possible. He also wants researchers to be provided with protection from dangerous activists who wish to do them harm. He hopes that his speaking out will make some impact on the opinions of both the research fieldworkers and the public.
Dario Ringach was a research scientist who worked with primates until a few years ago. Rinach was a neuroscientist at the University of California until he began receiving death threats. After a colleague was sent a bomb, he decided to protect his family by giving up his career. Now he is speaking out about what he feels must be done to remedy this problem.
Ringach believes that there are so many people willing to speak out against animal research, but there are so few who are willing to attempt to explain why it is necessary. He says that groups like PETA and celebrities sensationalize the suffering of research animals. If scientists weren't so afraid to educate the public about what happens in research situations, the public would be able to see that it’s not so bad. They want biomedical research to be done but don’t understand that animal testing is a necessary part of that process. Ringach wants research facilities to open their doors so it can be seen that the animals are kept as comfortable and happy as possible. He also wants researchers to be provided with protection from dangerous activists who wish to do them harm. He hopes that his speaking out will make some impact on the opinions of both the research fieldworkers and the public.
Wednesday, September 16, 2009
Freewrite #1
My first memory is of looking up at the top shelf of my greatgrandparents pantry and see ing the boxes of cereal.. I remember seing a bodx of corn flakes and a box of bran flakes. the pantry was right next to the bathroom door in an old farmhouse. the bathroom door had a painted on picture of a purple fower anda rickety handle that didn't work. the door had to be locked with a hook. the old pantry had a wooden door and had 4 shelves. they always had cereal. My great grandparents used to give me bread butter and jelly for food. the plain white bread was first covered in butter which was always on the table then it was covered in strawberry jelly. that was put in a bowl and covered with milk. i remember it being really yummy but i can't iomagine eating it now. they also always had ice cream which was all thet my great grandfather would eat for the last few months he was alive. he was a very stubborn man. he didn't want to move back to pawnee and my great grandmother finally just left him in new mexico and went home herself the year that i was born. he eventurally followed. so i guess she was more stubborn . that trait i can blame on them. she always had patchwork blankets made out of polyesther material on her bed. and a cheap box of throw away jewelry taht i used ot love playing with. as they got older they bought a lift chair that had massage that my sister and i used ot love to play on. everyday we would watch days of our lives and then oprah. eventually my father would pick us up. i think i stopped staying ther eand stayed alone around 8.
Wednesday, September 9, 2009
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