Kutschera U. Humanity and evolution. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Feb 11 [cited 2009 Sept 17];457: 763-764. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/nature/journal/v457/n7231/full/457763a.html
In Kutschera’s article Humanity and evolution, he begins by telling us that two great men, Charles Darwin and Abraham Lincoln, were born on February 12, 1809. Both of these men also believed in that slavery was wrong. A historical study being done by Adrian Desmond and James Moore, entitled Darwin's Sacred Cause, is attempting to prove that Darwin had made a connection between evolution in animals and evolution in people. They further want to prove that Darwin’s studies were always intended to have a moral and social impact.
As scientists delve deeper into the human genome, Kutschera cautions, we must be careful not to let our own opinions and preconceptions effect the results found. He is concerned that, as we discover genes responsible for the basic senses of right and wrong, we will begin to not hold people responsible for their own actions. Instead, those decisions might be blamed on a defective gene. He cautions that we must behave as scientists-examining issues with dispassion and not translating those conclusions into how we should take that information and use it in the present. If we do, then we will be going against the intentions of Darwin and Lincoln.
Wednesday, September 30, 2009
Summary 2
Campbell P, Waldrop M M. Natural Value. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Feb 11 [cited 2009 sept 17];457: 764. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/nature/journal/v457/n7231/full/457764a.html
The editorial, Natural Value, explores one potential way that we can save natural resources. The article contends that the environment, especially in some situations, is economically advantageous for us to manage and maintain. If we can accurately price the worth of a natural recourse, it would then have added perceived value. Then people would be more apt to preserve those recourses.
There are both positives and challenges inherent in this plan. Many of these resources would, in the long run, save a great deal of money. Maintaining places such as marshes protects areas inland from hurricanes and other water disasters. Jobs would be created for monitoring these natural resources and research into their uses. The big problem with implementing any government plans is that there aren’t enough solid ways to assess the economic value of certain areas. Also it would “make everything more expensive”. The article argues that overall, in the long run, money would be saved as in the example of Hurricane Katrina where wetlands would have buffered much of the damage. Maintaining these natural recourses is much cheaper than paying for the consequences of allowing our natural resources to be destroyed.
The editorial, Natural Value, explores one potential way that we can save natural resources. The article contends that the environment, especially in some situations, is economically advantageous for us to manage and maintain. If we can accurately price the worth of a natural recourse, it would then have added perceived value. Then people would be more apt to preserve those recourses.
There are both positives and challenges inherent in this plan. Many of these resources would, in the long run, save a great deal of money. Maintaining places such as marshes protects areas inland from hurricanes and other water disasters. Jobs would be created for monitoring these natural resources and research into their uses. The big problem with implementing any government plans is that there aren’t enough solid ways to assess the economic value of certain areas. Also it would “make everything more expensive”. The article argues that overall, in the long run, money would be saved as in the example of Hurricane Katrina where wetlands would have buffered much of the damage. Maintaining these natural recourses is much cheaper than paying for the consequences of allowing our natural resources to be destroyed.
Summary 3
Ball P. When does punishment work?. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Sept 28 [cited 2009 Sept 17]. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090928/full/news.2009.955.html
A paper written in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, evaluating the results of a study done by Yi Tao of the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institute of Zoology in Beijing, attempts to explain why certain people respond differently to situations in which punishment is a threat. Students were given a version of the game commonly called the prisoner’s dilemma. In the common version of this game, a person can either cooperate or defect; the ability to punish was added to test how it affects cooperation.
Most people in democratic societies responded with eventual cooperation. The United States and China did not. While the US results are somewhat less reliable, the Chinese results seem to be solid. In this computer game, Chinese are more likely to punish than cooperate…even if this hurts themselves in the end. Researchers believe that the way that the Chinese interact, especially during business activities, explains this. Chinese business is done in a slow, deliberate manner called guanxi. It is based on a relationship slowly cultivated based on “friendship, obligation, and guilt” that continues until both parties are satisfied. There is no one on one interaction in the prisoner’s dilemma game and so no trust forms. Without trust, in the Chinese culture, there is no reason to cooperate. This study seems to prove only that societal norms affect behavior at least as much as biology.
A paper written in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, evaluating the results of a study done by Yi Tao of the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institute of Zoology in Beijing, attempts to explain why certain people respond differently to situations in which punishment is a threat. Students were given a version of the game commonly called the prisoner’s dilemma. In the common version of this game, a person can either cooperate or defect; the ability to punish was added to test how it affects cooperation.
Most people in democratic societies responded with eventual cooperation. The United States and China did not. While the US results are somewhat less reliable, the Chinese results seem to be solid. In this computer game, Chinese are more likely to punish than cooperate…even if this hurts themselves in the end. Researchers believe that the way that the Chinese interact, especially during business activities, explains this. Chinese business is done in a slow, deliberate manner called guanxi. It is based on a relationship slowly cultivated based on “friendship, obligation, and guilt” that continues until both parties are satisfied. There is no one on one interaction in the prisoner’s dilemma game and so no trust forms. Without trust, in the Chinese culture, there is no reason to cooperate. This study seems to prove only that societal norms affect behavior at least as much as biology.
Summary 4
Dolgin E. Color blindness corrected by gene therapy. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Sept 16 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.921 . Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090916/full/news.2009.921.html
Jay Neitz of the University of Washington in Seattle and his colleagues conducted an experiment on red green color blindness. Color blindness occurs because there is a missing gene for either red or green on the cone cells on the retina. Squirrel monkeys have to have both of the versions of the opsin gene in order to see in full color. All male squirrel monkeys are color blind because the opsin genes are each carried on only one x chromosome. This allows most of the females to see in full color, but all of the males must be colorblind. The researchers attached the human red opsin gene to a viral vector and injected it behind the squirrel monkeys’ retinas. Within 20 weeks, the monkeys were able to see the color red.
This study suggests that color blindness in humans could be corrected. Previously, researchers weren’t certain if the brains of color blind individuals were unable to interpret or receive the signals from the cone cells. Now they know that correcting the missing gene at only the cone cell level can correct the color blindness. The main concern is that color blind humans often have excellent vision. Researchers are concerned that any alteration might affect the vision.
Jay Neitz of the University of Washington in Seattle and his colleagues conducted an experiment on red green color blindness. Color blindness occurs because there is a missing gene for either red or green on the cone cells on the retina. Squirrel monkeys have to have both of the versions of the opsin gene in order to see in full color. All male squirrel monkeys are color blind because the opsin genes are each carried on only one x chromosome. This allows most of the females to see in full color, but all of the males must be colorblind. The researchers attached the human red opsin gene to a viral vector and injected it behind the squirrel monkeys’ retinas. Within 20 weeks, the monkeys were able to see the color red.
This study suggests that color blindness in humans could be corrected. Previously, researchers weren’t certain if the brains of color blind individuals were unable to interpret or receive the signals from the cone cells. Now they know that correcting the missing gene at only the cone cell level can correct the color blindness. The main concern is that color blind humans often have excellent vision. Researchers are concerned that any alteration might affect the vision.
Summary 5
Ball P. Artificial babies are so last century. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Jul 30 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.747. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090731/full/news.2009.747.html
According to Philip Ball, many people are scared and upset by the research done by Karim Nayernia, a stem-cell biologist at the University of Newcastle, UK. Nayernia has found a way to alter normal embryonic stem cells into cells resembling sperm cells. These cells are not sperm cells. Hysteria over the role of science in the sexes is not a new one.
Some people are concerned that long dead people will be reproduced. Others are concerned that the role of men might become minimal if they aren’t needed to reproduce. These sorts of concerns have been seen before. In the 1920’s people were terrified that test tube babies, a concept thought up by British biologist J. B. S. Haldane in his book Daedalus; or Science and the Future, would make men pointless. The conservative philosopher, Anthony Ludovici, was concerned that ectogenesis (the process of incubating a baby outside of the female womb) would make men obsolete, and that women would only keep a very small number of men around as sperm donors. The rest of the men produced, Ludovici thought, would be sent to slaughter. Ball tells us to not fall prey to the panic that we now scoff at others in the past for exhibiting.
According to Philip Ball, many people are scared and upset by the research done by Karim Nayernia, a stem-cell biologist at the University of Newcastle, UK. Nayernia has found a way to alter normal embryonic stem cells into cells resembling sperm cells. These cells are not sperm cells. Hysteria over the role of science in the sexes is not a new one.
Some people are concerned that long dead people will be reproduced. Others are concerned that the role of men might become minimal if they aren’t needed to reproduce. These sorts of concerns have been seen before. In the 1920’s people were terrified that test tube babies, a concept thought up by British biologist J. B. S. Haldane in his book Daedalus; or Science and the Future, would make men pointless. The conservative philosopher, Anthony Ludovici, was concerned that ectogenesis (the process of incubating a baby outside of the female womb) would make men obsolete, and that women would only keep a very small number of men around as sperm donors. The rest of the men produced, Ludovici thought, would be sent to slaughter. Ball tells us to not fall prey to the panic that we now scoff at others in the past for exhibiting.
Summary 6
Kaplan M. Birds born to fear red. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Jul 31 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.760. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090731/full/news.2009.760.html
Sarah Pryke of Macquarie University in Sydney has conducted an experiment on Australian Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) attempting to conclude whether the color red is hard wired into animal brains or if the association with red is a learned trait. In this study Pryke used juvenile Gouldians who had not yet developed into red-heads or black-heads. She then randomly painted the finches’ heads red, black, or blue. The blue color being the control color as it is not found in natural Gouldians. The birds with the red heads were deferred to at feedings without a fight and exhibited lower corticosterone levels than the blue and black painted birds.
Scientists have seen numerous examples of red being seen as the color of aggression but they aren’t sure why. They speculate that the infusion of blood to the surface of the skin when aroused may be a signal to others of aggression. Also the color red may be physically difficult to maintain so those that do must be exemplary specimens. The fact that red is such a noticeable color may signal to others that the particular animal is especially tough so it can be noticed by predators and still survive.
Sarah Pryke of Macquarie University in Sydney has conducted an experiment on Australian Gouldian finches (Erythrura gouldiae) attempting to conclude whether the color red is hard wired into animal brains or if the association with red is a learned trait. In this study Pryke used juvenile Gouldians who had not yet developed into red-heads or black-heads. She then randomly painted the finches’ heads red, black, or blue. The blue color being the control color as it is not found in natural Gouldians. The birds with the red heads were deferred to at feedings without a fight and exhibited lower corticosterone levels than the blue and black painted birds.
Scientists have seen numerous examples of red being seen as the color of aggression but they aren’t sure why. They speculate that the infusion of blood to the surface of the skin when aroused may be a signal to others of aggression. Also the color red may be physically difficult to maintain so those that do must be exemplary specimens. The fact that red is such a noticeable color may signal to others that the particular animal is especially tough so it can be noticed by predators and still survive.
Summary 7
Cyranoski D. DNA swap could avoid inherited diseases. Nature [Internet]. 2009 Aug 26 [cited 2009 Sept 17]; doi:10.1038/news.2009.860. Available from: http://www.nature.com.mutex.gmu.edu/news/2009/090826/full/news.2009.860.html
A technique has been developed and tested on rhesus macaques where the chromosomes of one female’s egg is transplanted into an egg of another female who’s nuclear DNA has been removed. The aim of this experiment is to eliminate the defective mitochondria of the chromosome donating female from the offspring. So far 3 successful transfers have taken place with the rhesus macaques.
This research is very promising for human use as it has been successful in another primate and so should work in humans as well. Many mitochondrial diseases could be eliminated in this way such as type 2 diabetes, mitochondrial myopathies, and Leigh syndrome. Researchers feel that work on humans could be ready as soon as 2 years from now. Some potential complications may hold back using the technique on humans. Human DNA is a bit more delicate than the rhesus macaque’s. Strict laws governing the use of embryos, acquiring eggs, and nuclear transfer may slow things down. Also, there is some concern that, in some situations, the mitochondria from one egg may not be compatible with the DNA from another. Nevertheless, genetic researchers in the mitochondrial disease field are very excited and hopeful that this new technique will benefit future generations.
A technique has been developed and tested on rhesus macaques where the chromosomes of one female’s egg is transplanted into an egg of another female who’s nuclear DNA has been removed. The aim of this experiment is to eliminate the defective mitochondria of the chromosome donating female from the offspring. So far 3 successful transfers have taken place with the rhesus macaques.
This research is very promising for human use as it has been successful in another primate and so should work in humans as well. Many mitochondrial diseases could be eliminated in this way such as type 2 diabetes, mitochondrial myopathies, and Leigh syndrome. Researchers feel that work on humans could be ready as soon as 2 years from now. Some potential complications may hold back using the technique on humans. Human DNA is a bit more delicate than the rhesus macaque’s. Strict laws governing the use of embryos, acquiring eggs, and nuclear transfer may slow things down. Also, there is some concern that, in some situations, the mitochondria from one egg may not be compatible with the DNA from another. Nevertheless, genetic researchers in the mitochondrial disease field are very excited and hopeful that this new technique will benefit future generations.
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